English Literature

English Literature: Fossilization

English Literature: Fossilization

English Literature: Fossilization

Task Based Syllabus Design

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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Syllabus design is
concerned with the selection, sequencing and justification of the content of
the curriculum. Traditional approaches to syllabus developed were concerned
with selecting lists of linguistic features such as grammar, pronunciation, and
vocabulary as well as experiential content such as topics and themes. These
sequenced and integrated lists were then presented to the methodologist, whose
task it was to develop learning activities to facilitate the learning of the
prespecified content.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">NEEDS ANALYSIS<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Task base syllabuses
require a needs analysis to be conducted in teams of target task and learner
are preparing to undertake, such as taking part in a job interview , two
pictures or texts to find the difference, solving a problem, designing a brochure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This will be achieved
through attempting to find the results of a needs analysis, which investigated
the English language needs of students in HSC level into task based syllabus
design. The assignment is divided into four sections. Section one provides a
needs analysis for task-based syllabus design. Section two provides goals and
objectives of the task based syllabus design. Section Three shows how the
syllabus of the task based course was designed, and section four provides
insights in relation to the limitations of the proposed syllabus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When needs analysis and
course design is linked in a systematic way a number of issues arise three of
these will be highlighted below.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One crucial question is how to
conceptualize learner needs for the purposes of any given course design. The
concept of language needs has never been clearly defined and remains at best
ambiguous. This is because needs are not abstract entities, with their own
objective existence.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
means that it is possible for different people involved in the same course to
arrive at different conclusions depending on their views on language, learning
and teaching. It can also mean, however, that needs analysis findings will be
abandoned during course design.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There
have been many attempts to differentiate between needs types, and there has
been a wide acceptance of the view that 'needs' is an umbrella term. There have
two needs groups (1) target needs i.e. what the learner needs to do in the
target situation and (2) learning needs. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
is the teacher's and the learners' needs that can be taken into account in the
case of General English courses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Needs analysis were
collected from a college student. English needed for a brief inventory of
facilities for language learning and teaching. The following section includes
the HSC level student perceptions concerning goals and expectations for the HSC
level English program. Goals and expectations for the HSC English program from the
beginning of the first year. Before the in-service HSC English program actually
I had contacted as an instructor with many students in the HSC level  and asked them about the goals and
expectations for HSC level English program.  I asked my students, why they are interested
and why want to learn. They wanted to help themselves to learn proper English
so that they can be a proficient teacher of second language learner. So that
they can work in real world, which creating activities that are meaningful and
relevant to students<span style="color: red;">. </span>They also want learning<span style="color: red;"> </span>grammatical
structure and different kinds of essay, paragraph, and story. I expected the participants
to be able to present as a L2 speaker and proper writers the end of the program
or after two years. According to me, the emphasis of the lessons should be placed
on oral proficiency. Also, I agreed that pre-developed text materials could be <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As a result, a class was
arranged where the instructor would be able to have more information from the
management people and some of the actual participants in his class before instruction
started. The class was arranged and it was decided that instruction would begin
while assessing the participants’ English proficiency, grammar and adapting
pre-developed text materials. Information about the learners was collected from
four sources. These are given below<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Individual learners’ brief personal
history and goal for learning English; </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2) Questionnaire 1
administered before the HSC program started; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Questionnaire 2 administered shortly
after the outset of the program; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4) Oral interview in English followed by an interview
in Head examiner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The first source provides learners’
background. The items on the first questionnaire were designed for collecting
information about learners’ brief bio-data and difficulties they had in
speaking, listening, reading and writing in English. The second questionnaire
was designed to collect information about learners’ previous English learning experiences,
self-rating of their proficiency, and the similar questions concerning the
difficulties in speaking, listening, reading, and writing in English. The
following section presents a brief description of the participants, their major
problems in using English, and the language learning experiences in the past.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Especially, the needs analysis
showed repeated use of skills for avoiding misunderstanding. The participants
in the program would need them in their interaction in a group as their proficiency
and grammar improved. Now I present the communicative skills used for avoiding
misunderstanding in the data. These are giving feedbacks, interrupting for
clarifying meaning, asking for focused repetition, asking for focused explanation,
asking for meaning. Confirming presented information by summarizing, repeating
information, if other members have not understood, and eliciting additional
information by asking specific questions, confirming and going back to topic. Each
participant was given a notebook at the outset of the program to write down
their work. Their skills needed for intercultural communication based on their
past experiences, grammatical points and vocabulary which the participants had
trouble with, or requests concerning their class.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Task Based Syllabus
Design<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The task based syllabus
is the communicative task as a piece of classroom work which involves learners
in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target task
while their attention is primarily focused on meaning rather than form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Goals
and Objective<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This task based model
for designing and teaching a task based syllabus for HSC. As a teacher I
developing the syllabus for Higher Secondary Certificate on task based
syllabus.  I set up it according national
Curriculum and Textbook Board. Higher Secondary Certificate Examination level
syllabus divided into five parts. After completing this course they will be
able to reach thier destination. There goals and objectives on these four.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Goals and Objectives part lists the goals enabling skill and objectives based
on student needs assessments</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The following points
are representative of typical student objectives listed in the goals and
objectives part;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Listening
Skills<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After completing HSC
who should be able to:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Recognize tone of voice which is stress
and intonation and body language as clues for attitudes, feeling and register.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
they complete their course they will be able to find out their problem and they
able to solve. They will understand their teacher communication what he/she is
saying and why they are not over come from this problem. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Make references as to time, place,
personal characteristics, movies, previous or successive events, case and
effect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
learners will able to complete listening skill they can understand second
language movies, there characteristics and why producer produce this movies.
Learners can speak with foreigner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Develop an awareness of good listening
strategies such as predicting and guessing, confirming and disconfirming.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Communicative
skills</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Students
should be able to:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ask for and give factual information.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Express and ask about feeling,
attitudes, opinion, ideas etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Describe people, objects, places,
sequences of events.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Socialize that means learner main goal
and objective in this section which they can communicate very easily with any
other.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Target language needs
were defined in accordance with the theoretical framework outlined above, where
language is looked at as part of human activities. Since human activities are
characterized by their context as well as the motives and goals of the
participants it was not possible to predict and list every activity in which
the use of English is possibly are needed by the students. What was possible,
however, is to arrive at a list of real</span><span style="font-family: "ms mincho"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">‑</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">life
tasks which the students needed to be able to fulfill! By “task” I mean the description
of what needs to be done as opposed to what is actually done. In this sense,
tasks are schematic in nature, and they come to life in the form of activities.
Target language needs were investigated in the form of tasks within our needs
survey<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reading
Skills<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Students
should be able to read for the following purposes:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To be current with world events<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To understand functional materials such
as forms, labels, notices<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To their work such as instructions,
letters, reports, manuals etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To recognize and use words and patters
that signal relationships of time and order, listening, cause/effect and comparison
or contrast.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">To distinguish fact, fiction, opinion,
propaganda etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The above statements
formed part of the theoretical framework for the task-based course design and,
therefore, were relevant in terms of designing the task-based syllabus. On the
basis of these statements, it was possible to determine how to conceptualize
language for teaching purposes, which in turn made it possible to decide in
what form target language needs should be conceptualized.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Grammar Section:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Learners learn grammar
so that they can write, read, speak clearly and fluently. They will able to
learn how to correct errors, transformation of sentence.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At this point, it is
possible to argue that the analysts themselves should investigate the target
domains in order to carry out the linguistic analysis and base the syllabus
design on the results.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Writing Skills<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
writing skills, learner goals and objectives are given below<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Generate and organize ideas in
descriptive and narrative modes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use advanced level grammatical
structures appropriately<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Revise content for meaning such as
clarity, organization, elaboration of ideas in order to communicate effectively
with the reader<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use paragraph, dialogue and parts of the
composition these must include introduction, discussion, conclusion
appropriately.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Having specified target
and pedagogical tasks, the syllabus I analyze these in order to identify the
knowledge and skills that the learner will need to have in order to carry out
the tasks. The next step is to sequence and integrate the tasks with enabling
exercises designed to develop the requisite knowledge and skills. As I have
already indicated, one key distinction between an exercise and a task is that
exercises will have purely language related outcomes, while tasks will have
non-language related outcomes, as well as language related ones.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These are the steps
that I follow in designing language programs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizgN6XELD-kE5T11flkcrM06P4Qymy6f4KJ421fY_8ZgIxlLpJEBAvR-Uz0zqUvXA81uDfGTeGhpa28-2Al5ceC8Ne9GmwiDXizhMuKjvmg_IjYtlIwp-kJ6ouQ4ZNof6gjwK3q7DYwA/s1600/Noor%2527s+Photo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizgN6XELD-kE5T11flkcrM06P4Qymy6f4KJ421fY_8ZgIxlLpJEBAvR-Uz0zqUvXA81uDfGTeGhpa28-2Al5ceC8Ne9GmwiDXizhMuKjvmg_IjYtlIwp-kJ6ouQ4ZNof6gjwK3q7DYwA/s200/Noor%2527s+Photo.jpg" width="150" /></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1. Select and sequence
real-world / target tasks<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2. Create pedagogical
tasks (rehearsal / activation)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3. Identify enabling
skills: create communicative activities and language exercises<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4. Sequence and
integrate pedagogical tasks, communicative activities and language exercises<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Task Based Syllabus Design

Syllabus design is concerned with the selection, sequencing and justification of the content of the curriculum. Traditional approaches to s...

<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definition of the
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The
first hypothesis of Krashen’s Monitor Model, the acquisition-learning
hypothesis, distinguishes between the processes of language acquisition and
language learning. Krashen contrasts acquisition and learning as two distinct
and separate language processes. Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously
through implicit, informal, or natural learning, resulting in implicit
knowledge and acquired competence of a language; in other words, to acquire a
language is to “pick up” a language by relying on “feelings” of correctness
rather than conscious knowledge of language rules.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In
contrast to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through
explicit or formal learning and instruction, resulting in explicit knowledge
about a language; learning results in metalinguistic knowledge and awareness.
Furthermore, the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that both children and
adults acquire language via access to an innate language acquisition device
(LAD) regardless of age as well as that learning cannot become acquisition. The
most important pedagogical implication of the first hypothesis of the Monitor
Model is that explicit teaching and learning is unnecessary, indeed inadequate,
for second language acquisition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The first critique of Krashen’s
Monitor Model is that the hypothesized distinction between acquisition and
learning as posited by the acquisition-learning hypothesis, or, more
specifically, determining whether the process involved in language production
resulted from implicit acquisition or explicit learning, is impossible to
prove. As Barry McLaughlin offers as anecdotal evidence, he feels that the
German *Ich habe nicht das Kind gesehen “I have not seen the children” is
incorrect based on intuition but also knows that the utterance is incorrect
based on his knowledge of the rules of German grammar.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Furthermore,
critics consider the argument that learning cannot become acquisition
questionable. Kevin R. Gregg offers anecdotal evidence of his personal
experience learning a second language as counterevidence to the clear division
between acquisition and learning: He initially consciously learned the
conjugations of Japanese verbs through rote memorization, which ultimately led
to unconscious acquisition. In his case, learning became acquisition. Both
examples of personal experience with a second language illustrate the problem
with stringently distinguishing the process of language acquisition from the
process of language learning. Thus, the claim that acquisition is distinct from
learning fails to withstand evidence-based criticism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Although
influential within the field of second language acquisition over the past few
decades, the Monitor Model is not without criticism as illustrated by the major
critiques of the learning-acquisition hypothesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definition of the
Natural Order Hypothesis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The
second hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, argues that the acquisition of
grammatical structures occurs in a predictable sequence. The natural order
hypothesis applies to both first language acquisition and second language
acquisition, but, although similar, the order of acquisition often differs
between first and second languages. In other words, the order of acquisition of
a first language is different from the order of acquisition of that same
language as a second language.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">However,
regardless of native language, all language learners of any single second
language appear to follow the same predictable order; for example, learners of
English as a second language generally acquire the grammatical structure of
yes-no questions before the grammatical structure of wh- questions.
Furthermore, according to the hypothesis, the order of acquisition remains the
same regardless of explicit instruction; in other words, explicit teaching and
learning cannot change the natural order of acquisition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Criticism:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> The second critique of the
Monitor Model surrounds the evidence in support of the natural order
hypothesis. According to Krashen, that children acquiring English as a second
language acquire the morphemes of the language in a predictable sequence
similar but not identical to the sequence followed by children acquiring
English as a first language confirms the validity of the natural order
hypothesis. Furthermore, other morpheme studies on adults acquiring English as
a second language show similar results.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">However,
as Kevin R. Gregg argues, to generalize the results of a study on the
acquisition of a limited set of English morphemes to second language
acquisition as a whole is fallible. Morpheme studies offer no indication that
second language learners similarly acquire other linguistic features
(phonology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics) in any predictable sequence let
alone in any sequence at all.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Secondly,
the natural order hypothesis fails to account for the considerable influence of
the first language on the acquisition of a second language; in fact, the
results of other studies indicate that second language learners acquire a second
language in different orders depending on their native language. Therefore,
although posited by the natural order hypothesis, second language learners do
not necessarily acquire grammatical structures in a predictable sequence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Although
the Monitor Model has been influential in the field of second language
acquisition, the second hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, has not been
without criticism as evidenced by the critiques offered by other linguists and
educators in the field.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definition of the
Monitor Hypothesis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The
third hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, complements the acquisition-learning
hypothesis by claiming that the only function of learning within second
language acquisition is as an editor, or Monitor, for language use produced by
the acquired system as well as to produce grammatical forms not yet acquired.
The Monitor allows a language user to alter the form of an utterance either
prior to production by consciously applying learned rules or after production
via self-correction. In other words, the learned system monitors the output of
the acquired system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">However,
according to the monitor hypothesis, explicit knowledge of a language rule is
not sufficient for the utilization of the Monitor; a language user must also
have an adequate amount of time to consciously think about and apply learned
rules. Additionally, the three conditions required by the Monitor—time, focus,
and knowledge—are, as Krashen asserts, “necessary and not sufficient,” meaning
that, despite the convenement of all three conditions, a language user may not
utilize the Monitor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Criticism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The major critique of the monitor
hypothesis expands on the critique of the acquisition-learning hypothesis.
According to the monitor hypothesis, the main purpose of language learning is
to function as a Monitor for output produced by acquired system. However, as
critics reveal through deeper investigation of the acquisition-learning
distinction, to separate language learning clearly and adequately from language
acquisition is impossible. Consequently, determining that the function of the
learned system is as a Monitor only remains likewise impossible to prove.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Additionally,
that the claim of learning-as-Monitor applies only to output after production
invites further criticism of the hypothesis; second language learners can and
do use the learned system to produce output as well as to facilitate
comprehension. Such questions and evidence, therefore, invalidate the central
claim of the monitor hypothesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Therefore,
in spite of the influence of the Monitor Model in the field of second language
acquisition, the third hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, has not been without
criticism as evidenced by the critiques offered by other linguists and
educators in the field.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definition of the
Input Hypothesis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The
fourth hypothesis, the input hypothesis, which applies only to language
acquisition and not to language learning, posits the process that allows second
language learners to move through the predictable sequence of the acquisition
of grammatical structures predicted by the natural order hypothesis. According
to the input hypothesis, second language learners require comprehensible input,
represented by i+1, to move from the current level of acquisition, represented
by i, to the next level of acquisition. Comprehensible input is input that
contains a structure that is “a little beyond” the current understanding—with
understanding defined as understanding of meaning rather than understanding of
form—of the language learner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Second
language acquisition, therefore, occurs through exposure to comprehensible
input, a hypothesis which further negates the need for explicit instruction
learning. The input hypothesis also presupposes an innate language acquisition
device, the part of the brain responsible for language acquisition, that allows
for the exposure to comprehensible input to result in language acquisition, the
same language acquisition device posited by the acquisition-learning
hypothesis. However, as Krashen cautions, like the time, focus, and knowledge
required by the Monitor, comprehensible input is necessary but not sufficient
for second language acquisition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Criticism:
Like for the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the first critique of the input
hypothesis surrounds the lack of a clear definition of comprehensible input;
Krashen never sufficiently explains the values of i or i+1. As Gass et al.
argue, the vagueness of the term means that i+1 could equal “one token, two
tokens, 777 tokens”; in other words, sufficient comprehensible input could embody
any quantity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">More
importantly, the input hypothesis focuses solely on comprehensible input as
necessary, although not sufficient, for second language acquisition to the
neglect of any possible importance of output. The output hypothesis as proposed
by Merrill Swain seeks to rectify the assumed inadequacies of the input
hypothesis by positing that language acquisition and learning may also occur
through the production of language. According to Swain who attempts to
hypothesize a loop between input and output, output allows second language
learners to identify gaps in their linguistic knowledge and subsequently attend
to relevant input. Therefore, without minimizing the importance of input, the
output hypothesis complements and addresses the insufficiencies of the input
hypothesis by addressing the importance of the production of language for
second language acquisition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Thus,
despite the influence of the Monitor Model in the field of second language
learning and acquisition, the input hypothesis, the fourth hypothesis of the
theory, has not been without criticism as evidenced by the critiques offered by
other linguists and educators in the field.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">All
theorists of language-learning agree that second language input of some form is
necessary for learning a new language. It is also necessary to be able to
understand and process the input for second language acquisition to take place.
This is because second language acquisition (SLA) occurs on a development
continuum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">We travel along
this continuum by receiving what Stephen Krashen (1982, 1985) termed
“comprehensible input.” Comprehensible input is that input which is slightly
beyond the current level of competence of the language learner. If i is the
language learner’s current level of competence in the foreign language, then i
+ 1 is the next immediate step along the development continuum. Therefore, if
the goal is to assist the language learner progress in their task, it is
essential to provide the student/learner with comprehensible input [i +1].<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">This methodology is
incorporated into the Mango course. It is like teaching a child how to dance.
Most people would not enroll their infant who cannot yet walk in a ballet class
with the hopes that by simply immersing them in the environment they will jump
to their feet and perform a saut de chat. The child must first learn to crawl,
then to stand, then to walk, and so on. With the Mango program, we start the
student off with a conversation in order to orient them to the context of what
they are about to learn. We then parse the conversation into smaller sentences.
These sentences are then broken down piece by piece into their “elemental
components” and slowly built back up to form the original sentence.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">If you only learn
phrases in chunks, how will you know the individual meaning of each word, much
less how to create new sentences and phrases with them?<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Definition of the
Affective Filter Hypothesis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The
fifth hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis, accounts for the influence
of affective factors on second language acquisition. Affect refers to
non-linguistic variables such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety.
According to the affective filter hypothesis, affect effects acquisition, but
not learning, by facilitating or preventing comprehensible input from reaching
the language acquisition device. In other words, affective variables such as
fear, nervousness, boredom, and resistance to change can effect the acquisition
of a second language by preventing information about the second language from
reaching the language areas of the mind.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Furthermore,
when the affective filter blocks comprehensible input, acquisition fails or
occurs to a lesser extent then when the affective filter supports the intake of
comprehensible input. The affective filter, therefore, accounts for individual
variation in second language acquisition. Second language instruction can and
should work to minimize the effects of the affective filter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Criticism:
The final critique of Krashen’s Monitor Model questions the claim of the
affective filter hypothesis that affective factors alone account for individual
variation in second language acquisition. First, Krashen claims that children
lack the affective filter that causes most adult second language learners to
never completely master their second language. Such a claim fails to withstand
scrutiny because children also experience differences in non-linguistic
variables such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety that supposedly
account for child-adult differences in second language learning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Furthermore,
evidence in the form of adult second language learners who acquire a second
language to a native-like competence except for a single grammatical feature
problematizes the claim that an affective filter prevents comprehensible input
from reaching the language acquisition device. As Manmay Zafar asks, “How does
the filter determine which parts of language are to be screened in/out?” In
other words, the affective filter hypothesis fails to answer the most important
question about affect alone accounting for individual variation in second
language acquisition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Although
the Monitor Model has been influential in the field of second language
acquisition, the fifth and final hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis,
has not been without criticism as evidenced by the critiques offered by other
linguists and educators in the field.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Definition of the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis The first hypothesis of Krashen’s Monitor Model, the acquisition-learning hypothesis, d...

Fossilization

<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<h2>
<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><h1>Fossilization refers to
the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be
corrected.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Language fossilization is a broad term used to
describe many forms of arrested progress in second language acquisition.</span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
progress can occur in one or more specific features of the target language.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Selinker first put forwarded the notion of
fossilization in the paper <u>Interlanguage</u> in 1972. He noted that 5% of second
language learners able to reach the same level of first language competence from
his observation.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fossilization as a permanent interruption
of interlanguage learning before the learner has attained target language norms
at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of
the learner’s positive ability, opportunity, and motivation to learn and
acculturate into target society. The concept of fossilization in second
language acquisition is so intrinsically related to interlanguage that Selinker
considers it to be a fundamental phenomenon of all second language acquisition and
not just for adult learners.Fossilization has been interpreted in a different
way by different scholars.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For example, there are terms like
backsliding, stabilized errors, learning plateau, typical error, persistent
non-target-like performance, de-acceleration of the learning process, ingrained
errors, systematic use of erroneous forms, cessation of learning, structural
persistence, ultimate attainment, long-lasting free variation, persistent
difficulty, and inability to fully master target language features describing
the similar meaning, which lead to confusion for quite a long time.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Many</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">scholars
have attempted to discover why fossilization occurs and the precipitating
conditions. What kind of linguistic material is likely to be fossilized and
what type of learners are more prone to fossilize. Though, there has been
almost no investigation by SLA theorists on the possibilities of preventing or
overcoming fossilization, and little explanation related to those adult second
language learners who overcome one or more "areas of stability" in
interlanguage those learners whose interlanguage does not fossilize, and who
reach a high level of proficiency in the second language.Fossilization may
appear at different language levels. It may occur at different learning stages
among age groups. It may be either structure fossilization or competence fossilization.
It is usually manifested as the deviant forms from the target language norms there
are soft and hard degrees of fossilization.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Selinker and Lamendella
(1978) redefined fossilization as a permanent cessation of IL learning before
the learner has attained TL norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in
all discourse domains in spite of the learner’s positive ability, opportunity,
and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Classification of
Fossilization:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>According to Selinker
(1978), fossilization can be divided into two categories.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">  
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Individual fossilization and group
fossilization.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">  
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Temporary fossilization and permanent
fossilization.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Individual
fossilization and group fossilization:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Individual
fossilization consists of two types: error reappearance and language competence
fossilization. Error reappearance refers to the inappropriate interlanguage
structures that are thought to have been corrected but continue to appear
regularly. It can be found in interlanguage of beginners or learners with low
proficiency.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Errors reappearance in which certain errors that
have been considered as corrected and ruled out occur repeatedly.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Language competence
fossilization refers to the plateau in the development of L2 learners’
phonological, grammatical, lexical and pragmatic competence. It is found in L2
learners who have been learning target language for a long period of time and
arrived at a relatively high level. In fact, repeated errors are often the
demonstrations of competence fossilization. If fossilized language competence
becomes pervasive in a community, group fossilization comes into being. Such pervasion
often leads to a new dialect. Indian English and Singapore English are good
cases in point.</b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Group fossilization
refers to the emergence of a new dialect when the fossilized language
competence tend to be universal and becomes a normal phenomenon of a society</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Temporary fossilization
and permanent fossilization:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Temporary fossilization
called stabilization which indicates that fossilized interlanguage consists of
learning plateaus</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">where development of given TL features
is simply ‘arrested’ or ‘inhibited’ for shorter or longer periods of time.</span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
has become one of the heated topics in the current fossilization studies.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Permanent fossilization
takes place a result of social, psychological and interactive variables.
Researchers that temporarily arrested interlanguage development can be
susceptible to defossilization. It has also been referred to by Sims as soft
fossilization.</b></span><b><br /></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Types of Fossilization:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Fossilization is a
linguistic phenomenon in its own right and manifested as different forms from target
language. It follows at all levels from phonological layer to pragmatic layer.</b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>(1) Phonological
fossilization</b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>(2) Morphological
fossilization</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)</span>  <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Syntactic fossilization<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>(4) Semantic
fossilization</b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>(5) Pragmatic
fossilization</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Phonological
fossilization:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>The difference of phonology
is possibly the greatest difference between languages. Phonological
fossilization refers to the repetition of phonological errors which result from
the incorrect acquisition of pronunciation of L2, usually affected by L1. In
English, there are certain pronunciations such as [ș] which do not exist in
Chinese. Therefore, it is difficult for Chinese English learners to pronounce
this consonant [ș] correctly. It is often heard that Chinese students say
“Thank [snk] you” instead of “Thank [șæƾk] you”. When such phonological errors
are repeatedly made and eventually stay stable in the incorrect manner, phonological
fossilization occurs.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Morphological
fossilization:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>English has got a
variety of changes in morphology. It has various grammatical morphemes. The
most common problems place in two aspects that inflectional morpheme and
article. The third-person singular –s is a facet of syntactic agreement such as
drinks and is suffixed to lexical verbs and auxiliaries such as has. However,
there are other markers for third-person singular, such as buses, crises, and
criteria. Since such linguistic phenomenon does not exist in Chinese. It often
leads Chinese students to forget the transformation or to misuse the form.
Articles are also big headaches for Chinese students, because there are no
corresponding words or expression in Chinese. It is very mystery that when and
where how to put which article that is not only mystery for certain amount of
learners, but also who are with higher proficiency.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Syntactic fossilization:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Every languages have
their different own syntactic rules. Different languages have syntactic structure
of fossilization. Chinese students are faced problem when they want to learn
target language. Because different languages have obvious tense differentiation
but Chinese does not have obvious tense differentiation, whereas English has
present tense and past tense in general that can be further divided into
sixteen categories. Not to mention complicated marker system for past tense and
past participle tense, it often takes time for Chinese students to decide the
right kind of tense. In this situation they cannot make clear distinction. They
have to turn to their instinct for help from time to time and thus
fossilization occurs.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Semantic fossilization</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Semantic fossilization
refers to the use of language forms that exist in target language but do not
represent the meanings second language learners intend to express in the
context. For example, the word sword symbolized in the Muslim countries as a pace
and power but derogatory in Western countries, dragon is the symbol of evil in
the western culture but the symbol of power in China.<br /> </b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pragmatic fossilization</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Due to the close
relationship between pragmatics and semantics, fossilization in the two aspects
is interrelated and overlapping. Pragmatic failure takes place in the
cross-cultural communication and refers to the “inability to understand what is
meant by what is said”. Inappropriate language use results in misunderstanding
and even insults. For example a foreigner come to our Bangladesh and he went to
market for buying some fishes when he asked a fish seller how much but fisher
seller repeated that Hilsa.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Causal Factors of
Fossilization:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">There have five casual factors of fossilization. These five processes
produce entirely fossilized IL competence.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Language transfer<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Training transfer<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Learning strategy<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(4)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Communication strategy<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(5)<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Overgeneralization<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Language transfer:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Some language rules in the learner’s interlanguage are transferred from his/her
first language.</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The errors in
the use of L2 result mainly from L1 and the difference between L1 and the L2 is
the reason for the occurrence of errors. The transfer of L1 can be positive or
negative. Positive transfer refers to that the similarities shared by the L1
and L2 help second language acquisition. Negative transfer refers to the
differences between L1 and L2 that interfere of second language acquisition.
The negative transfer of L1 is what the behaviorists believe to be proactive
inhibition.<br /><o:p></o:p></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Training transfer:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Transfer of training refers to the effect that knowledge or abilities
acquired in one area have on problem solving or knowledge acquisition in other
areas. Transfer of training is based on the theory of transfer of learning.
Valette made a distinction between “street” learners and school learners. She
claimed that “fossilization often occurs among ‘street’ learners who have had
extensive opportunity to communicate successfully albeit with inaccurate lexical
and syntactic patterns. As a result, their errors have become systematized and
are almost impossible to eradicate” (Valette, 1991). “Street” learners are
never corrected, nor do they correct themselves.<br /> </b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Learning strategy:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>The strategies of learning second language refer to the learning and
management method adopted by learners and all kinds of activities of using the
language. Different language learners may choose different learning strategies.
The successful learning strategies can make interlanguage approach the target
language while the incorrect and inefficient learning strategies can lead to
fossilization. For instance, some learners are inclined to over-generalize some
grammatical rules of target language, thus making errors and finally becoming
fossilization. In the process of learning a second language fossilization
caused by the incorrect application of learning strategies is the most common.
Learning strategies refer not only to the overall strategies but also to the
explicit methods the learner adopts in the process of second language learning.
The appropriate application of learning strategies helps process the target
language input and therefore improves L2 learning quality.</b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Some learners, however, may turn to learning strategies to such an extent
as overgeneralization, simplification, incomplete rule application and
inadequate declarative knowledge of L2.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Communication strategy:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>A systematic skill a speaker resorts or while having difficulties in
expression to keep the communication going on. Successful use of communication
strategies will prevent acquisition. Language as a tool plays an important role
in helping communication between people. Selinker put forward the strategies of
second language communication in 1972. It can be summarized as a set of skills
(avoidance, paraphrase, borrowing and word coinage) used by learners in
communication. In oral communication, learners tend to avoid some complicated
rules in order to make their expression simple and rapid. Thus, fossilization
can be produced. As Ellis (2002) defined, the cognitive component of procedural
knowledge is composed of the various mental process involved in both
internalizing and automatizing new L2 knowledge and using L2 knowledge along
with other knowledge sources to communicate in L2. It’s evident that these processes
involve L2 learning and using, where the former concerns learning strategy and
the latter communication strategy. In real communication learners may turn to
communication strategy successful use of communication strategies will prevent
acquisition”,<br /> </b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Overgeneralization:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Overgeneralization is the process of extending the application of a rule
to items that are excluded from it in the language norm, as when a child uses
the regular past tense verb ending -ed of forms like I walked to produce forms
like I goed or I rided. Overgeneralization (Ellis, 2000) involves the use of
existing L2 knowledge by extending it to new IL forms. It happens when people
apply a grammatical rule across all members of a grammatical class without
making the appropriate exceptions. In fact language overgeneralization always
indicates the ignorance of rule restrictions, including semantic.</b></span><b><br /></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fossilization Reduction:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Adoption of proper learning strategies has been based on the assumption
that there are “good” learning strategies. Although this concept is
questionable, there are successful learners. Their learning experience is of
great value to others. First, successful learners appear to use strategies more
frequently and in qualitatively different ways than learners who are less
successful. Good language learners appear able to switch the focus of their
attention while they are performing a task. They tend to treat language as a
system by making effective cross-lingual comparisons, analyzing the target
language, and using reference books. Third, different kinds of learning
strategies may contribute to different aspects of L2 proficiency.<br /> </b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Exposure to TL and TL
culture:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>It allows them to stay for some time in the native environment abroad. Natural
exposure to TL has similarly been proposed as a factor that promotes L2
learning and therefore helps learners overcome fossilization. One way to expose
learners to the natural target language is by allowing them to stay for some
time in the native environment abroad. First, multimedia instruments are highly
recommended. Those materials not only contain standard pronunciation, but also
reflect target culture. Second, textbooks with original passages by foreign
authors should be adopted in that its way of thinking and expression can help
L2 learners better understand and master the language.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduction of negative
transfer of L1:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>It is not to use too early until the learner’ oral competence is
facilitated with sufficient input and without relying on their native language
(Krashen, 1983). Otherwise, some inappropriate expressions can be fossilized..
The learners should not be encouraged to read paragraphs or articles and to
analyze the grammar or the usage of the words in each sentence, for the reason
that context is very important in mastering vocabulary, and the sufficient
input of the target language is the effective method to overcome the negative
transfer of native language.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conclusion:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Fossilization is an important material. It has significance influence on
second language acquisition. It deserves our attention that solves
fossilization problems in all aspects of language.<br /> </b></span><b><br /></b><b><br /></b><b><br /></b><b><br /></b><b><br /></b><b><br /></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">References:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>(1) S.P. Krashen, Principles and Practices in Second Language
Acquisition, Oxford: Pergamon, 1982</b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>L. Selinker, “Interlanguage,” International Review of Applied Linguistics
in Language Teaching.</h1></b></span></h2>
</div>

Fossilization

<h1>Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be corrected. Language fossil...