Fossilization

<h1>Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be corrected. Language fossilization is a broad term used to describe many forms of arrested progress in second language acquisition. This progress can occur in one or more specific features of the target language.
 Selinker first put forwarded the notion of fossilization in the paper Interlanguage in 1972. He noted that 5% of second language learners able to reach the same level of first language competence from his observation. Fossilization as a permanent interruption of interlanguage learning before the learner has attained target language norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of the learner’s positive ability, opportunity, and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society. The concept of fossilization in second language acquisition is so intrinsically related to interlanguage that Selinker considers it to be a fundamental phenomenon of all second language acquisition and not just for adult learners.Fossilization has been interpreted in a different way by different scholars. For example, there are terms like backsliding, stabilized errors, learning plateau, typical error, persistent non-target-like performance, de-acceleration of the learning process, ingrained errors, systematic use of erroneous forms, cessation of learning, structural persistence, ultimate attainment, long-lasting free variation, persistent difficulty, and inability to fully master target language features describing the similar meaning, which lead to confusion for quite a long time.
Many scholars have attempted to discover why fossilization occurs and the precipitating conditions. What kind of linguistic material is likely to be fossilized and what type of learners are more prone to fossilize. Though, there has been almost no investigation by SLA theorists on the possibilities of preventing or overcoming fossilization, and little explanation related to those adult second language learners who overcome one or more "areas of stability" in interlanguage those learners whose interlanguage does not fossilize, and who reach a high level of proficiency in the second language.Fossilization may appear at different language levels. It may occur at different learning stages among age groups. It may be either structure fossilization or competence fossilization. It is usually manifested as the deviant forms from the target language norms there are soft and hard degrees of fossilization.
Selinker and Lamendella (1978) redefined fossilization as a permanent cessation of IL learning before the learner has attained TL norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of the learner’s positive ability, opportunity, and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society.Classification of Fossilization:According to Selinker (1978), fossilization can be divided into two categories.(1)   Individual fossilization and group fossilization.
(2)   Temporary fossilization and permanent fossilization.
Individual fossilization and group fossilization:Individual fossilization consists of two types: error reappearance and language competence fossilization. Error reappearance refers to the inappropriate interlanguage structures that are thought to have been corrected but continue to appear regularly. It can be found in interlanguage of beginners or learners with low proficiency. Errors reappearance in which certain errors that have been considered as corrected and ruled out occur repeatedly.
Language competence fossilization refers to the plateau in the development of L2 learners’ phonological, grammatical, lexical and pragmatic competence. It is found in L2 learners who have been learning target language for a long period of time and arrived at a relatively high level. In fact, repeated errors are often the demonstrations of competence fossilization. If fossilized language competence becomes pervasive in a community, group fossilization comes into being. Such pervasion often leads to a new dialect. Indian English and Singapore English are good cases in point.Group fossilization refers to the emergence of a new dialect when the fossilized language competence tend to be universal and becomes a normal phenomenon of a societyTemporary fossilization and permanent fossilization:Temporary fossilization called stabilization which indicates that fossilized interlanguage consists of learning plateaus where development of given TL features is simply ‘arrested’ or ‘inhibited’ for shorter or longer periods of time. It has become one of the heated topics in the current fossilization studies.
Permanent fossilization takes place a result of social, psychological and interactive variables. Researchers that temporarily arrested interlanguage development can be susceptible to defossilization. It has also been referred to by Sims as soft fossilization.
Types of Fossilization:Fossilization is a linguistic phenomenon in its own right and manifested as different forms from target language. It follows at all levels from phonological layer to pragmatic layer.(1) Phonological fossilization(2) Morphological fossilization(3)  Syntactic fossilization
(4) Semantic fossilization(5) Pragmatic fossilizationPhonological fossilization:The difference of phonology is possibly the greatest difference between languages. Phonological fossilization refers to the repetition of phonological errors which result from the incorrect acquisition of pronunciation of L2, usually affected by L1. In English, there are certain pronunciations such as [ș] which do not exist in Chinese. Therefore, it is difficult for Chinese English learners to pronounce this consonant [ș] correctly. It is often heard that Chinese students say “Thank [snk] you” instead of “Thank [șæƾk] you”. When such phonological errors are repeatedly made and eventually stay stable in the incorrect manner, phonological fossilization occurs.Morphological fossilization:English has got a variety of changes in morphology. It has various grammatical morphemes. The most common problems place in two aspects that inflectional morpheme and article. The third-person singular –s is a facet of syntactic agreement such as drinks and is suffixed to lexical verbs and auxiliaries such as has. However, there are other markers for third-person singular, such as buses, crises, and criteria. Since such linguistic phenomenon does not exist in Chinese. It often leads Chinese students to forget the transformation or to misuse the form. Articles are also big headaches for Chinese students, because there are no corresponding words or expression in Chinese. It is very mystery that when and where how to put which article that is not only mystery for certain amount of learners, but also who are with higher proficiency.Syntactic fossilization:Every languages have their different own syntactic rules. Different languages have syntactic structure of fossilization. Chinese students are faced problem when they want to learn target language. Because different languages have obvious tense differentiation but Chinese does not have obvious tense differentiation, whereas English has present tense and past tense in general that can be further divided into sixteen categories. Not to mention complicated marker system for past tense and past participle tense, it often takes time for Chinese students to decide the right kind of tense. In this situation they cannot make clear distinction. They have to turn to their instinct for help from time to time and thus fossilization occurs.Semantic fossilizationSemantic fossilization refers to the use of language forms that exist in target language but do not represent the meanings second language learners intend to express in the context. For example, the word sword symbolized in the Muslim countries as a pace and power but derogatory in Western countries, dragon is the symbol of evil in the western culture but the symbol of power in China.
Pragmatic fossilizationDue to the close relationship between pragmatics and semantics, fossilization in the two aspects is interrelated and overlapping. Pragmatic failure takes place in the cross-cultural communication and refers to the “inability to understand what is meant by what is said”. Inappropriate language use results in misunderstanding and even insults. For example a foreigner come to our Bangladesh and he went to market for buying some fishes when he asked a fish seller how much but fisher seller repeated that Hilsa.Causal Factors of Fossilization:There have five casual factors of fossilization. These five processes produce entirely fossilized IL competence.(1)   Language transfer
(2)   Training transfer
(3)   Learning strategy
(4)   Communication strategy
(5)   Overgeneralization
Language transfer:Some language rules in the learner’s interlanguage are transferred from his/her first language. The errors in the use of L2 result mainly from L1 and the difference between L1 and the L2 is the reason for the occurrence of errors. The transfer of L1 can be positive or negative. Positive transfer refers to that the similarities shared by the L1 and L2 help second language acquisition. Negative transfer refers to the differences between L1 and L2 that interfere of second language acquisition. The negative transfer of L1 is what the behaviorists believe to be proactive inhibition.
Training transfer:Transfer of training refers to the effect that knowledge or abilities acquired in one area have on problem solving or knowledge acquisition in other areas. Transfer of training is based on the theory of transfer of learning. Valette made a distinction between “street” learners and school learners. She claimed that “fossilization often occurs among ‘street’ learners who have had extensive opportunity to communicate successfully albeit with inaccurate lexical and syntactic patterns. As a result, their errors have become systematized and are almost impossible to eradicate” (Valette, 1991). “Street” learners are never corrected, nor do they correct themselves.
Learning strategy:The strategies of learning second language refer to the learning and management method adopted by learners and all kinds of activities of using the language. Different language learners may choose different learning strategies. The successful learning strategies can make interlanguage approach the target language while the incorrect and inefficient learning strategies can lead to fossilization. For instance, some learners are inclined to over-generalize some grammatical rules of target language, thus making errors and finally becoming fossilization. In the process of learning a second language fossilization caused by the incorrect application of learning strategies is the most common. Learning strategies refer not only to the overall strategies but also to the explicit methods the learner adopts in the process of second language learning. The appropriate application of learning strategies helps process the target language input and therefore improves L2 learning quality.Some learners, however, may turn to learning strategies to such an extent as overgeneralization, simplification, incomplete rule application and inadequate declarative knowledge of L2.Communication strategy:A systematic skill a speaker resorts or while having difficulties in expression to keep the communication going on. Successful use of communication strategies will prevent acquisition. Language as a tool plays an important role in helping communication between people. Selinker put forward the strategies of second language communication in 1972. It can be summarized as a set of skills (avoidance, paraphrase, borrowing and word coinage) used by learners in communication. In oral communication, learners tend to avoid some complicated rules in order to make their expression simple and rapid. Thus, fossilization can be produced. As Ellis (2002) defined, the cognitive component of procedural knowledge is composed of the various mental process involved in both internalizing and automatizing new L2 knowledge and using L2 knowledge along with other knowledge sources to communicate in L2. It’s evident that these processes involve L2 learning and using, where the former concerns learning strategy and the latter communication strategy. In real communication learners may turn to communication strategy successful use of communication strategies will prevent acquisition”,
Overgeneralization:Overgeneralization is the process of extending the application of a rule to items that are excluded from it in the language norm, as when a child uses the regular past tense verb ending -ed of forms like I walked to produce forms like I goed or I rided. Overgeneralization (Ellis, 2000) involves the use of existing L2 knowledge by extending it to new IL forms. It happens when people apply a grammatical rule across all members of a grammatical class without making the appropriate exceptions. In fact language overgeneralization always indicates the ignorance of rule restrictions, including semantic.
Fossilization Reduction:Adoption of proper learning strategies has been based on the assumption that there are “good” learning strategies. Although this concept is questionable, there are successful learners. Their learning experience is of great value to others. First, successful learners appear to use strategies more frequently and in qualitatively different ways than learners who are less successful. Good language learners appear able to switch the focus of their attention while they are performing a task. They tend to treat language as a system by making effective cross-lingual comparisons, analyzing the target language, and using reference books. Third, different kinds of learning strategies may contribute to different aspects of L2 proficiency.
Exposure to TL and TL culture:It allows them to stay for some time in the native environment abroad. Natural exposure to TL has similarly been proposed as a factor that promotes L2 learning and therefore helps learners overcome fossilization. One way to expose learners to the natural target language is by allowing them to stay for some time in the native environment abroad. First, multimedia instruments are highly recommended. Those materials not only contain standard pronunciation, but also reflect target culture. Second, textbooks with original passages by foreign authors should be adopted in that its way of thinking and expression can help L2 learners better understand and master the language.Reduction of negative transfer of L1:It is not to use too early until the learner’ oral competence is facilitated with sufficient input and without relying on their native language (Krashen, 1983). Otherwise, some inappropriate expressions can be fossilized.. The learners should not be encouraged to read paragraphs or articles and to analyze the grammar or the usage of the words in each sentence, for the reason that context is very important in mastering vocabulary, and the sufficient input of the target language is the effective method to overcome the negative transfer of native language.Conclusion:Fossilization is an important material. It has significance influence on second language acquisition. It deserves our attention that solves fossilization problems in all aspects of language.






References:(1) S.P. Krashen, Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Pergamon, 1982L. Selinker, “Interlanguage,” International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching.</h1>